Indicator SC.1.a Number of violent crimes
Data Source
Crime data from San Francisco Police Department, 2005-2007.
Map and table prepared by City and County of San Francisco, Department of Public Health, Environmental Health Section using ArcGIS software.
Map data is presented at the level of the census tract. The map also includes planning neighborhood names, in the vicinity of their corresponding census tracts.
Table data is presented by planning neighborhood. Planning neighborhoods are larger geographic areas then census tracts. SF DPH used ArcGIS software and a 'centroids within' methodology to convert census tracts to geographic mean center points. We then assigned census tracts to planning neighborhoods based on the spatial location of those geographic mean center points and calculated the planning neighborhood totals for the table.
Detailed information regarding census data, geographic units of analysis, their definitions, and their boundaries can be found in the HDMT at the following links:
http://www.thehdmt.org/etc/Geographic_Units_of_Analysis.September_2009.pdf
http://www.thehdmt.org/data_map_methods.php
Explanation and Limitations
The data for these indicators comes from police incident reports written by the San Francisco Police Department for crimes reported during the 2005-2007 time period. The maps show those incidents with addresses it recognizes, or where the location was known to the victim. Sometimes, a crime has no specific location. For example, if someone was assaulted on MUNI the location is "Unknown" or if the victim cannot specify the location. Other times, the address cannot be located by the computer mapping system, and then the location is "Location not Found". Other incidents which happened outside the locality, but reported to the San Francisco Police Department are classified as "Out of Town."
Measuring the incidence of crime is extremely difficult. Much crime goes undetected and some crimes are not reported to police. Crimes that go undetected and unreported cannot be counted. Finally, the police themselves may, for various reasons, not record something as a crime, or inaccurately report something as a crime when it is not.
Underreporting and statistical undercount influence the degree to which these data are reflective violent crimes, particularly rape and sexual assault. Victims may not file reports because of shame or fear of retribution, and/or insensitivity of law enforcement and court personnel. Underestimation may also occur because rape and sexual assault injuries may not always be captured by hospitalization and death statistics.
Some violent crimes are reported but without a specific location. Violent crimes without a location are not included on the maps and tables above. Additionally, some violent crimes may have been committed outside of the city limits, but reported in the City.
The World Health Organization defines violence as: the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment or deprivation.a
While data and statistics profile the trends of violence, they do not explain the factors that influence its occurrence. Violence is rarely caused by a single risk factor but rather by the presence of multiple risk factors and absence of protective (or resiliency) factors. Risk factors are traits or characteristics that increase the relative risk of an individual or community being affected by or perpetrating violence. Resiliency factors are traits or characteristics that protect an individual or community from violence.
Risk factors for violence include: poverty and economic disparity, illiteracy and school failure, alcohol and other drugs, firearms, negative family dynamics, mental illness, incarceration/reentry, community deterioration, discrimination and oppression, power and control, media violence, experiencing and witnessing violence, and, gender socialization. Resiliency factors from violence include: economic capital, meaningful opportunities for participation, positive attachments and relationships, good physical and mental health, social capital, built environment, services and institutions, emotional and cognitive competence, artistic and creative opportunities, ethnic, racial, and intergroup relations, and media/marketing.b
As stated in the Alameda County Blueprint for Violence Prevention, violence prevention is "a comprehensive and multifaceted effort to address the complex and multiple risk factors associated with violence including, but not limited to, poverty, unemployment, discrimination, substance abuse, educational failure, fragmented families, domestic abuse, internalized shame, and felt powerlessness. Efforts build on resilience in individuals, families, and communities. Violence prevention is distinct from violence containment or suppression. Violence prevention efforts contribute to empowerment, educational and economic progress, and improved life management skills while fostering healthy communities in which people can grow in dignity and safety. Finally, efforts realign institutions to be more inclusive and receptive in responding to community needs. Violence prevention efforts targeted toward young children work to prevent experiencing or witnessing violence when young as well as to reduce the risk of future perpetration or victimization of violence."b
The Blueprint continues to identify land use and zoning as potential factors that can have a positive impact on violence prevention. For example, "Land-use patterns that encourage neighborhood interaction and a sense of community have been shown not only to reduce crime, but also create a sense of community safety and security.c Further, good community design can contribute to a general increase in community networks and trust by creating a "neighborhood feel" through which people are encouraged to interact with each other in a safe environment. Residents of buildings with green space had a stronger sense of community and reported less violence in dealing with domestic disputes."d
Built environment elements that promote violence prevention include, "housing, transportation, product availability, and aesthetic/ambiance. Poor and inadequate housing is associated with increased risk for violencee and psychological stress.f Alternatively, the availability of safe and affordable housing can reduce stresses associated with living in unsafe, noisy, or overcrowded conditions or not being able to secure housing. Decisions about housing and its design can promote social interaction, community stability, and build a solid tax base to fund needed services, including violence prevention. Reliable and affordable transportation can ensure that people have access to jobs and services. Zoning can also influence the availability of beneficial products such as books and school supplies, sports equipment, arts and crafts supplies, and other recreational items as well as limit availability or lack, of potentially harmful products such as tobacco, firearms, alcohol, and other drugs can also have an impact on violence within a community. Low-income communities and communities of color have greater access to alcohol and tobacco products due to the high prevalence of local liquor stores."b
The report Cultivating Peace in Salinas: A Framework for Violence Prevention states, "A public health approach to violence is rooted in the understanding that criminal justice alone can not solve the problem of violence. The violence prevention movement is broader, both in concept and in participation than public health, but is based on some fundamental public health tenets including:
- primary prevention orientation -- efforts designed to prevent violence before it occurs
- data-driven -- approaches based on data that describes the nature of problem as well as contributing risk and resiliency factors
- collaborative -- multiple partners working together to produce change
- general population-based -- seeking community-wide or "environmental" solutions
Utilizing public health principles promotes broader, more lasting solutions to the violence problem. Such an orientation is essential because "no mass disorder afflicting mankind is ever brought under control or eliminated by attempts at treating the individual." Individual actions, criminal justice deterrents, and punishments are inadequate to intervene in a problem that has all of the markings of an epidemic."g
Why is this a Community Health Indicator?
Physical assaults, homicides and rapes/sexual assaults are direct and adverse health outcomes for a community. In many low income communities, homicides account for the largest number of years of avoidable life lost. Witnessing and experiencing community violence causes longer term behavioral and emotional problems in youth.h,i Finally, community violence also impacts the perceived safety of a neighborhood, inhibiting social interactions and adversely impacting on social cohesion.j
A study in Baltimore, Maryland ranked 65 neighborhoods on the Neighborhood Psychosocial Hazards Scale, a combined measure of social disorganization, public safety, physical disorder, and economic deprivation. The researchers then linked the neighborhood measures with health data for a sample of residents. Regardless of age, gender, race, education, smoking or medical history (e.g. hypertension, diabetes), residents were more likely to have had a heart attack if they lived in the most hazardous neighborhoods compared to the least hazardous neighborhoods.k In a separate study using the same data, researchers found that living in the most hazardous neighborhoods increased the odds of being obese compared to living in the least hazardous neighborhoods of Baltimore. More importantly, this relationship could not be explained away by differences in resident demographics, wealth, education, alcohol consumption, tobacco use, diet, or physical activity.l
In a large scale study involving over 600,000 residents in Sweden, the rate of violent crime in an individual’s neighborhood predicted their risk for coronary heart disease, regardless of individual demographic and socioeconomic measures.m Encouraging students to walk or bicycle to school can help combat the rising rates of childhood obesity by encouraging regular physical exercise. However, parental concerns about neighborhood crime strongly influence their willingness to allow their children to actively commute to school.n
- WHO Global Consultation on Violence and Health. 1996. Violence: a public health priority. Geneva: World Health Organization (document WHO/EHA/SPI.POA.2).
- Prevention Institute. 2005. A Lifetime Commitment to Violence Prevention: The Alameda County Blueprint. Available at: http://www.preventioninstitute.org/alameda.html. Retrieved 7/6/2006.
- Calhoun J. National Crime Prevention Council. New Partners for Smart Growth: Building Safe, healthy, and Livable Communities. 2nd annual conference flyer. 2002.
- Jackson RJ, Kochtitzky C. Creating a Healthy Environment: The Impact of the Build Environment on Public Health. Sprawl Watch Clearinghouse Monograph Series. Washington D.C.. p. 1-19.
- PolicyLink. 2002. Reducing health disparities through a focus on communities. Oakland, CA: A PolicyLink Report.
- Geronimus A. 2001. Understanding and eliminating racial inequalities in women's health in the United States: the role of the weathering conceptual framework. JAMWA 56(4):133-136.
- Prevention Institute. 1999. Cultivating Peace in Salinas: A Framework for Violence Prevention. Available at: http://www.preventioninstitute.org/vppubs.html#reports. Retrieved 12/6/2006.
- Perez-Smith AM, Albus KE, Weist MD. 2001. Exposure to violence and neighborhood affiliation among inner-city youth. J Clin Child Psychol 30(4):464-72.
- Ozer EJ, McDonald KL. 2006. Exposure to violence and mental health among Chinese American urban adolescents. J Adolesc Health 39(1):73-9.
- Fullilove MT, Heon V, Jimenez W, Parsons C, Green LL, Fullilove RE. 1998. Injury and anomie: effects of violence on an inner-city community. Am J Public Health 88(6):924-7.
Augustin T, Glass TA, James BD, Schwartz BS. Neighborhood Psychosocial Hazards and Cardiovascular Disease: The Baltimore Memory Study. Am J Public Health. 2008;98(9):1664-70.
Glass TA, Rasmussen MD, Schwartz BS. Neighborhoods and Obesity in Older Adults: The Baltimore Memory Study. Am J Prev Med. 2006;31(6):455–463.
Sundquist K, Theobald H, Yang M, et al. Neighborhood violent crime and unemployment increase the risk of coronary heart disease: a multilevel study in an urban setting. Soc Sci Med. 2006;62(8):2061-2071.
Kerr J, Rosenberg D, Sallis JF, et al. Active commuting to school: Associations with environment and parental concerns. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38(4):787-794.